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blood ran from the desert
Image by Kalense Kid
Underlying the west coast of South Island are the oldest rocks in New Zealand. Mainly sedimentary, they formed from sand and mud washed into the coastal waters of Gondwana, half a billion years ago. As these muds and sands gently buried the occasional offshore mafic volcano, creating greenschist, the Cambrian was nearing its leisurely end. Earth was a place of life, in which sponges, corals, molluscs, echinoderms, bryozoans, brachiopods and arthropods appeared and flourished. The first shelled animals, including trilobites and archaeocyaths walked the seabed that was to become New Zealand.
The planet rolled around the sun, and the Cambrian gave way to the Ordovician. In this vast span of time, fungus, plants and animals colonised the land, but in the waters off Gondwana, layers of mud piled slowly on layers of sand, squeezing the layers below into shale, limestone, greywackes (hard, muddy sandstones), slates, dolostone, and sandstone. And steadily burying layer upon layer of the remains of algae, blastoids, brachiopods, bryozoans, clams, cephalopods, corals, crinoids, snails, sponges and the first vertebrates, jawless, armoured fish.
Climate changed, the sea level rose, submerging most of the Gondwana craton and bringing about widespread extinction. Worse was to come; as the planet cooled, water was locked up in ice, which covered much of the planet and brought the Ordovician to an end in a slow cataclysm as most marine genera died out, taking with them the vast majority of species on Earth. The seabed that was to become New Zealand found itself above the sea level, and the limestones began to erode back into the ocean. But some Ordovician sandstone, argillite, black shale, quartz, limestone and marble survived great insult and injury (including metamorphosis) to emerge aeons later in northwest Nelson, while parts of Fiordland, including Milford Sound, are composed of these ancient sandstones and argillite, folded with their Ordovician fossils into intricate shapes.
Finally the climate stabilized, heralding the new age - the Silurian. Sea levels rose and New Zealand sank back under the waves. In the waters above the new layers of mud, increasing varieties of bony fish swam while ammonoids and crinoids formed reefs on which brachiopods lived. Slowly, siliciclastic rocks solidified far beneath them. On the land, primitive plants formed forests in arthropods hunted and were hunted by insects and arachnids.
The planet rolled on, and on the New Zealand seabed the silt filtered down, and on the sea bed blastods, brachiopods, conodonts, corals, echinoderms, graptolites, nautiloids, sponges, and trilobites build complex ecosystems, allowing the rapid evolution of armoured, lobe-finned, cartilaginous and bony fish. The mud slowly building on the sea floor contained spores and pollens collected from the ferns, horsetails and vascular plants now spreading across the land. The Devonian had started; by its end, Gymnosperms had evolved and lobe-finned fish had invaded the land.
For New-Zealand-to-be, the long ages of sedimentation ended when colliding plates squeezed together. Not only was the superficial mud and rock pushed above the waves, but the pressure forced rocks to the surface from 25 to 30 kilometers down. The mountains of today’s Fiordland bear evidence of huge pressures – something like 1000 Newtons on each square millimetre – that transformed ancient sea floor sediments into kyanite, garnet, gneiss, anorthosite, diorite and granite. Sandstones and mudstones became mica-striated schist. The slow turmoil deformed rock into mountains, which were ground down by glaciers and eroded back into the sea, where they were covered by younger silts and muds, squeezed, and uplifted again. The future New Zealand was no longer a place of slow accretion, but of torment that extended across what is now New South Wales, Tasmania and parts of Antarctica. This was the first time that any of what we call New Zealand appeared above the sea, when the ancestral rocks of Fiordland and Golden Bay became dry land, mostly glaciated since much of this tumult took place under a vast icecap that covered southern Gondwana. This was a time of changing climate, and of biological diversification and extinction.
Midway through the Carboniferous, the tectonic upthrust died away, and the proto New Zealand sank slowly back under water. Rapid erosion of the neighbouring Gondwana craton provided vast quantities of mud, rubble, silt and sand. Much of the rock of today’s New Zealand, and the oldest rock in North Island, results from the vast accumulation of sediment that covered the ocean floor as far as New Caledonia. Some of these deposits were close to shore or on Gondwana’s continental shelf, and are rich in fossils and threaded by volcanic wreckage. The greywackes to the east formed in deep water, where life was sparse and few fossils remain, the sediment probably coming mostly from Antarctica rather than Gondwana.
Carboniferous slid into Permian and Permian into Triassic and Triassic into Jurassic, and while the Earth orbited the sun 150 million times, Laurasia split away from Gondwana, and Gondwana, unhurriedly, broke apart into Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia, New Zealand-to-be slumbered under the waves. Currents in the dark water brought sediment and scoured it away, washing and shaping, building and scraping away again. Intermittent volcanic activity cooked the sand and mudstones, and left igneous and metamorphic debris as a memento of their passing. Biology invented and experimented, speciated and went extinct, but New Zealand paid little attention; it kept itself to itself and collected sediment. Since the area was underwater, it is not surprising that the Carboniferous swamps that were forming coal and gas reservoirs elsewhere on the planet were absent from New Zealand.
Towards the end of this vast period, the eastern boundary of the Pacific plate edged under this part of the ocean floor, and the resulting great tectonic collision forced the seabed above the water. Most of the exposed rock was sedimentary, but some seafloor was also squeezed and folded to the surface. While volcanoes came and went, layer upon layer of sediment and rock were eroded back to the ocean, rubbing out the history of many millions of years of slow accumulation. Plutonic rock from deep under the crust was forced to the surface, and the heat they brought with them metamorphosed the sedimentary rock nearby into schist, now found in Otago, Haast and Marlborough.
The tectonic activity moved elsewhere, leaving New Zealand high, if not dry. Rain and snow gradually eroded the mountains into a great peneplain with little relief and sluggish drainage. The animals and plants of New Zealand would have been typical of that part of Australia.
The fragmentation of Gondwana continued into the Cretaceous. A rift valley appeared and widened, accompanied by volcanic activity and rapid erosion into local sedimentary basins. Swamp forests developed over much of the land. Their remains form today’s widespread brown coal and oil deposits. The peneplain sank back under the sea and emerged again repeatedly, resulting in lignite beds that alternate with beds of clay, shale, and sandstone.
The rift valley widened by sea-floor spreading. As the land was dragged across a succession of plate boundaries, it and the sea floor suffered distortions and folding and the Tasman Sea formed behind it. Simultaneously the land sank back into the sea until the new island was almost entirely under water. By now the surviving animals and plants had had some 10 million years of evolution separate from their Australian cousins, so would have been largely endemic. Given the steady disappearance of their habitats under the water, and the shrinking of the land area on which they lived, this must have been a time of constraint and loss and extinction; most of those curious and unique life forms vanished forever, never recorded anywhere.
Curiously, all dinosaur fossils found in New Zealand have come from marine deposits. This is strange, because elsewhere dinosaurs were terrestrial, and have been found almost exclusively in fresh water sediments. How did New Zealand's dinosaurs get into those shallow seas? The fossil record is too sparse to know when dinosaurs became exinct on the islands - but it seems likely that they were not spared the calamity that overtook their cousins worldwide when a bolide buried itself in what is now Chicxulub. No mammal fossils have ever been found in New Zealand, though mammals had evolved long before New Zealand began its solitary journey. New Zealand is famous for having no native mammals - except 2 bat species - until humans reached the island. What happened to its ancient mammals?
Long after the last dinosaur died on the islands, a new rift opened between Antarctica and Australia and the resulting stresses pushed the southern end of South Island above the water, faulting the island along the Alpine Fault as the Southern Alps rose and eroded. The eastern and western sides of the fault began to slide rapidly, displacing rock once found in the north west of South Island southwards to Fiordland. New tectonic activity created the main mountain ranges of the country and gave it its modern shape. To the east of the islands, the Pacific plate is being subducted, and the islands are moving northwards over the associated volcanic regions, with the result that a slow wave of vulcanism is moving southwards. It is currently in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, where tourists come in droves each year to sail on the lake (a double caldera, whose deep water is kept at a constant 40C by the hot rock beneath it) and marvel at the bubbling, hissing and roaring thermal springs.
Ground Sloth
Image by elycefeliz
Diorama at Big Bone Lick State Park
Big Bone Lick State Park
During the Pleistocene age, which occurred during the last great Ice Age, enormous herds of herbivorous animals existed in the vicinity of what is today Big Bone Lick State Park. Ancestors of the sloth and bison frequented the area, which had vegetation and salty earth around the springs that the animals used to supplement their diet. The land was soft and marshy and many of the animals became mired in the bogs and died.
The area was widely known to the American Indians, such as the Delaware and Shawnee, who inhabited the Ohio Valley and relied on these centrally located springs for much of their salt and a large amount of their game. The Europeans learned of the existence of Big Bone Lick from these American Indians and the first European to visit this site was a French Canadian, de Longueil, in 1739. A map of Louisiana, dated 1744, marks the lick as the "place where they found the elephant bones in 1739." The first removal of fossil bones from the lick by American Indian trader Robert Smith was also recorded in 1744. In 1773, a survey party reported using the enormous ribs of the mammoth and mastodon for tent poles and the vertebrae as stools or seats. Explorers noted that the large bones lay scattered throughout the valley. The first map of Kentucky, prepared by John Filson in 1784, bore on the legend: "Big Bone Lick; Salt and Medical Spring. Large bones are found there."
Meriwether Lewis traveled to Big Bone Lick in October 1803 on his way west to join William Clark and the men assembling in Louisville for the Corps of Discovery. Lewis sent a box of specimens back to President Jefferson, along with an extremely detailed letter describing the finds of Goforth--the lengthiest surviving letter written by Lewis. President Jefferson devoted much time to the study of Big Bone Lick and believed that some of the large animals might still be living in the western regions of the country.
In 1807, after the Corps of Discovery disbanded, Jefferson sent Clark to Big Bone Lick for the first organized vertebra paleontology expedition in the United States. Clark employed laborers and collected bones, enough, in three weeks' time, to ship three huge boxes to the President. Jefferson had a room in the White House for the display of the Big Bone collection. The collection was divided and various sections of it went to the National Institute of France in Paris, to Philadelphia and to Jefferson's personal collection, which was unfortunately ground into fertilizer by a careless servant.
Ground sloths are a diverse group of extinct sloths, in the mammalian superorder Xenarthra. Their most recent survivors lived in the Antilles, where it has been proposed they may have survived until 1550 CE; however, the youngest AMS radiocarbon date reported is 4190 BP, calibrated to c. 4700 BP for Megalocnus of Cuba.
They had been extinct on the mainland of North and South America for 10,000 years or more. The term "ground sloth" is used as a reference for all extinct sloths because of the large size of the earliest forms discovered, as opposed to the extant "tree sloths."
Megalonyx, which means "giant claw" is a widespread North American genus, lived past the close of the last (Wisconsin) glaciation, when so many large mammals died out. Remains have been found as far north as Alaska.
The earliest known North American megalonychid, Pliometanastes protistus, lived in Florida and the southern U.S. about 9 million years ago, and is believed to have been the predecessor of Megalonyx.
When Lewis and Clark set out, Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to keep an eye out for ground sloths. He was hoping they would find some living in the Western range.
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One recent hypothesis is that the Osage-orange fruit was eaten by a giant ground sloth that became extinct shortly after the first human settlement of North America. Other extinct Pleistocene megafauna, such as the mammoth, mastodon and gomphothere, may have fed on the fruit and aided in seed dispersal.
Nile Crocodile
Image by wallygrom
These crocodiles were living in an enclosed lagoon at the Kaleta Reserve near Amboasary in southern Madagascar.
From Wikipedia -
The Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) is an African crocodile which is common in Somalia, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Egypt, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
In antiquity, Nile crocodiles occurred in the Nile delta and the Zarqa River (Jordan), and they are recorded by Herodotus to have inhabited Lake Moeris. They are thought to have become extinct in the Seychelles in the early 19th century. It is known from fossil remains that they once inhabited Lake Edward. The Nile crocodile's current range of distribution extends from the Senegal River, Lake Chad, Wadai and the Sudan to the Cunene and the Okavango Delta.
In Madagascar, crocodiles occur in the western and southern parts from Sembirano to Port Dauphin. They have occasionally been spotted in Zanzibar and the Comoros. Until recently, many permanent waters in the Sahara still housed relict populations.
In West Africa, Nile crocodiles are found most frequently in coastal lagoons, estuaries, and in the rivers bordering the equatorial forest belt. In East Africa, they are found mostly in rivers, lakes, marshes, and dams. They have been known to enter the sea in some areas, with one specimen having been seen 11 km off St Lucia Bay in 1917. In Madagascar, they have adapted to living in caves.
Nile Crocodiles have a dark bronze colouration above, with black spots on the back and a dirty purple on the belly. The flanks, which are yellowish green in colour, have dark patches arranged in oblique stripes. There is some variation relative to environment; specimens from swift flowing waters tend to be lighter in colour than those dwelling in lakes or swamps. They have green eyes.
Like all crocodiles, they are quadrupeds with four short, splayed legs; long, powerful tails; a scaly hide with rows of ossified scutes running down their back and tail; and powerful jaws. They have nictitating membranes to protect their eyes and have lachrymal glands, and can cleanse their eyes with tears.
Nostrils, eyes, and ears are situated on the tops of their head, so the rest of the body can remain concealed underwater. Their coloration also helps them hide: Juveniles are grey, multicoloured, or brown; with darker cross-bands on their tail and body. As they mature they become darker and the cross-bands fade, especially those on the body. The underbelly is yellowish, and makes high-quality leather.
They normally crawl along on their bellies, but they can also "high walk" with their trunks raised above the ground. Smaller specimens can gallop, and even larger crocodiles are capable of surprising bursts of speeds, briefly reaching up to 12 to 14 km/h (7.5 to 8.5 mi/h). They can swim much faster by moving their body and tail in a sinuous fashion, and they can sustain this form of movement much longer at about 30 to 35 km/h (18 to 22 mi/h).
They have a three-chambered heart which is often mistaken as four-chambered due to an elongated cardiac septum, which is physiologically similar to the four chambered heart of a bird, which is especially efficient at oxygenating their blood. They normally dive for only a couple of minutes, but will stay underwater for up to 30 minutes if threatened, and if they remain inactive they can hold their breath for up to 2 hours. They have an ectothermic metabolism, so they can survive a long time between meals — though when they do eat, they can eat up to half their body weight at a time.
They have a rich vocal range, and good hearing. Their skin has a number of poorly-understood integumentary sense organs (ISOs), that may react to changes in water pressure.
The bite force exerted by an adult Nile crocodile has been shown by Dr Brady Barr to measure 5,000 lbf (22 kN). However, the muscles responsible for opening the mouth are exceptionally weak, allowing a man to easily hold them shut with a small amount of force. Their mouths are filled with a total of 64 to 68 cone-shaped teeth. On each side of the mouth, there are 5 teeth in the front of the upper jaw (the premaxilla), 13 or 14 in the rest of the upper jaw (the maxilla), and 14 or 15 on either side of the lower jaw (the mandible). Hatchlings quickly lose a hardened piece of skin on the top of their mouth called the egg tooth, which they use to break through their egg's shell at birth.
Outside water crocodiles can meet concurrence with other dominant Savanna predators, notably felines such as lions and leopards. Occasionally, both will hunt and prey on each other, depending on size, if regular food becomes scarce.
From the 1940s to the 1960s, the Nile crocodile was hunted, primarily for high-quality leather, though also for meat and purported curative properties. The population was severely depleted, and the species faced extinction. National laws, and international trade regulations have resulted in a resurgence in many areas, and the species as a whole is no longer threatened with extinction. Crocodile 'protection programs' are artificial environments where crocodiles exist safely and without the threat of extermination from hunters.
There are an estimated 250,000 to 500,000 individuals in the wild. The Nile crocodile is also widely distributed, with strong, documented populations in many countries in east and southern Africa, including Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Successful sustainable-yield programs focused on ranching crocodiles for their skins have been successfully implemented in this area, and even countries with quotas are moving toward ranching. In 1993, 80,000 Nile crocodile skins were produced, the majority from ranches in Zimbabwe and South Africa.
The situation is more grim in central and west Africa, which make up about two-thirds of the Nile crocodile's habitat. The crocodile population in this area is much more sparse, and has not been adequately surveyed. While the natural population of Nile crocodiles in these areas may be lower due to a less-than-ideal environment and competition with sympatric slender-snouted and dwarf crocodiles, extirpation may be a serious threat in some of these areas. Additional factors are a loss of wetland habitats, and hunting in the 1970s. Additional ecological surveys and establishing management programs are necessary to resolve this.
The Nile crocodile is the top predator in its environment, and is responsible for checking the population of species like the barbel catfish, a predator that can overeat fish populations that other species, like birds, depend on. The Nile crocodile also consumes dead animals that would otherwise pollute the waters. The primary threat to Nile crocodiles, in turn, are humans. While illegal poaching is no longer a problem, they are threatened by pollution, hunting, and accidental entanglement in fishing nets.
Much of the hunting stems from their reputation as a man-eater, which is not entirely unjustified. Unlike other "man-eating" crocodiles, like the salties, the Nile crocodile lives in close proximity to human populations, so contact is more frequent. While there are no solid numbers, the Nile crocodile probably kills a couple of hundred people a year, which is more than all the other crocodiles combined. Some estimates put the number of annual victims in the thousands.
The Conservation Status of the Nile crocodile under the 1996 World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List is "Lower Risk" (Lrlc). The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) lists the Nile crocodile under Appendix I (threatened with extinction) in most of its range; and under Appendix II (not threatened, but trade must be controlled) in the remainder, which either allows ranching or sets an annual quota of skins taken from the wild.